The Nature of Social Difficulties in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

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Humans, like other primates, are an inherently sociable species; a characteristic deeply rooted in our evolutionary neurobiology. Our survival and success as a species have long depended on our ability to form social bonds, cooperate, and communicate effectively with one another. Human social-communication is a complex reciprocal process which is underpinned by several elements: (1) innate and universal nonverbal behaviours and social cues, (2) language, including expressive, receptive and pragmatic language, (3) societal and cultural influences on our social behaviours, and (4) the complex ways in which all these elements integrate and synchronise to facilitate human social interactions.

  1. Innate/Universal Nonverbal Behaviours and Social Cues: Research shows that a number of human behaviours and social cues are innate and universal, although they can be modulated in accordance with cultural “display-rules”. These include direct eye-contact1, emotional facial expressions2, certain vocal tones3 and body postures4,5. These behaviours/cues are hardwired into us through evolution, allowing us to communicate basic emotions and intentions. Below is an image showing American and Japanese individuals making similar facial expressions for the same emotions, highlighting the universal nature of this type of nonverbal communication.

2..Language: Unlike our innate and universal social behaviours/cues, language is learned within a culture (e.g., in Ireland we speak English, in France people speak French, in Germany they speak German etc.). However, in common with our innate behaviours, languages themselves developed incrementally over time through evolutionary-type processes (e.g., English developed out of Germanic languages, with influences from Latin and other Indo-European languages, which in turn had developed out of earlier proto-languages). While the specific language a child learns depends on their cultural environment, the ability to acquire language is facilitated by an innate neurological mechanism6. This mechanism enables typically developing children to learn the expressive, receptive, and pragmatic components of language largely through a process of implicit (“bottom-up”) learning. In other words, a child immersed in an environment where they are surrounded by other people talking and conversing will acquire language without much explicit tuition from their parents or teachers etc.

3. Societal and Cultural Influences on Social Behaviour: Society and culture influences social behaviour in numerous ways, with different societies having their own customs and cultural “display rules”. For example, although eye-contact is innate and universal, in certain cultures, such as Japan, children are taught that too much direct eye-contact is considered disrespectful and they thus learn to moderate their eye-gaze7. Similarly, emblematic hand gestures are learned within a culture. For instance, a “thumbs-up” gesture is a sign of approval in much of the Western world but may be considered offensive in some other countries. In China the “fist and palm salute” is often used to convey a wish for good fortune, while this gesture carries no particular meaning in other cultures. In addition, social customs and etiquette vary across societies. For example, in Western cultures we generally shake hands when meeting someone for the first time, although bowing is a more customary greeting in some East Asian countries such as Japan and South Korea. Like language, these mentioned behaviours are learned within a culture (rather than being innate), and are acquired by a child through a combination of implicit, “bottom-up” (observational) learning and explicit instruction and guidance from parents and teachers etc.

4. The Integration of Social Behaviours, Language, and Other Cues: Our human social-communicative behaviours consist of combinations of universally and intra-culturally recognisable social behaviours, language, and other cues (eye-contact patterns, emotional facial expressions, tones of voice, gestures, reciprocal behaviours etc.). The encoding and processing of social behaviours/information, along with the ability to infer other people’s mental states, emotions, and intentions, is a complex neurocognitive feat that, through normal developmental processes, becomes increasingly automatic in the brains of neurotypical people, generally requiring little conscious effort.8,9   Several of these social processes are evident from early infancy, and become more developed as the child grows older and the social demands on them increase.    

Social Difficulties in ASD

  1. Difficulties with the Innate Aspects of Social Communication: Research has shown that young children with ASD can exhibit poor direct eye-contact10, limited reciprocal smiling 11, as well as atypical facial expressions, vocalisations, and body postures12,13. However, given the heterogeneity of ASD there is considerable variability in these atypical behaviours among children on the autism spectrum, with some being more overt and obvious than others.
  2. Difficulties with Social-Communicative Development: As a result of neurological issues, children on the autism spectrum pay limited attention to social information14, which hinders their ability to intuit the rules that govern social interactions and learn the various social norms and customs of the society/culture in which they live through implicit, observational learning15,16. (They will often struggle to learn social information even with more overt, explicit instruction). This impacts significantly on the child’s social skills development and their capacity to understand other peoples’ thoughts, intentions, and emotions – a neurocognitive difficulty known as “Impaired Theory of Mind”17.

    In addition, many children on the autism spectrum experience a language delay, being slow to speak and having difficulty comprehending what is being said to them. Even where receptive and expressive abilities are adequate or even advanced, an individual with ASD will often experience difficulties with the pragmatic (social) aspects of language. They may have a poor understanding of idioms, sarcasm, or irony, and will tend to take things literally.

    The neurodevelopmental atypicalities associated with ASD lead to various challenges for individuals on the spectrum. Unlike their neurotypical peers whose brains tend to process social information spontaneously and automatically, people with ASD need to put much more conscious effort into processing social information18. They frequently struggle to interpret social cues, make sense of social interactions, and understand why other people behave the way they do. These issues negatively affect the social-communicative skills of individuals with ASD, which in turn can impact significantly on their ability to engage in reciprocal social interactions and establish and maintain friendships and other social relationships.
  3. Atypical Behaviours in ASD: ASD is a highly heterogeneous condition, and the atypical behaviours exhibited by individuals on the spectrum can vary considerably. These atypical behaviours do not form a coherent social-communication system(s) distinct from those of the neurotypical population. For example, individuals on the autism spectrum will usually demonstrate atypical eye-contact patterns, facial expressions, vocalisations, gestures, or body postures, or they may find it difficult or uncomfortable to engage in certain etiquettes, such as initiating handshakes. Similarly, one child with autism might flap their hands when excited, while another may do so only when angry. Or an individual with ASD might rock back and forth in response to sensory overload. These idiosyncratic behaviours can be difficult for others to interpret because they do not align with the universally and intra-culturally recognisable social behaviours/cues of the neurotypical population19,20. However, the parents of a child with ASD will usually become skillful at interpreting their child’s atypical and idiosyncratic behaviours.

In summary, individuals with ASD can experience difficulties with both the innate and learned aspects of social functioning. Due to certain neurodevelopmental atypicalities, they can have limited insight into social situations, and struggle to interpret various social cues. The atypical and idiosyncratic behaviours of individuals on the autism spectrum are difficult for others to interpret, as they do not align with the universally and intra-culturally social behaviours/cues of the neurotypical population. By recognising and understanding the complex nature of the social-communication difficulties that characterise ASD, society can better support individuals with autism by providing appropriate interventions, accommodations, and other supportive measures.

– The Autism Hub Team, 06/08/2024

 

References

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  2. Ekman, P. (2003). Emotions revealed: Recognizing faces and feelings to improve communication and emotional life. New York, NY: Times Books/Henry Holt and Co.
  3. Sauter, D.A., Eisner, F., Ekman, P., & Scott, S.K. (2010). Cross-cultural recognition of basic emotions through nonverbal emotional vocalizations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(6), 2408-2412. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0908239106.
  4. Tracy, J. L. & Matsumoto, D. (2008). The spontaneous expression of pride and shame: Evidence for biologically innate nonverbal displays. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(33), 11655-11660. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0802686105.
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Impaired Theory of Mind & the Double Empathy ProblemSensory Issues in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)